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Modern
history
has
rejected
the
beliefs
of
the
ancients
without
replacing
them
by
a
new
conception
,
and
the
logic
of
the
situation
has
obliged
the
historians
,
after
they
had
apparently
rejected
the
divine
authority
of
the
kings
and
the
"
fate
"
of
the
ancients
,
to
reach
the
same
conclusion
by
another
road
,
that
is
,
to
recognize
(
1
)
nations
guided
by
individual
men
,
and
(
2
)
the
existence
of
a
known
aim
to
which
these
nations
and
humanity
at
large
are
tending
.
At
the
basis
of
the
works
of
all
the
modern
historians
from
Gibbon
to
Buckle
,
despite
their
seeming
disagreements
and
the
apparent
novelty
of
their
outlooks
,
lie
those
two
old
,
unavoidable
assumptions
.
In
the
first
place
the
historian
describes
the
activity
of
individuals
who
in
his
opinion
have
directed
humanity
(
one
historian
considers
only
monarchs
,
generals
,
and
ministers
as
being
such
men
,
while
another
includes
also
orators
,
learned
men
,
reformers
,
philosophers
,
and
poets
)
.
Secondly
,
it
is
assumed
that
the
goal
toward
which
humanity
is
being
led
is
known
to
the
historians
:
to
one
of
them
this
goal
is
the
greatness
of
the
Roman
,
Spanish
,
or
French
realm
;
to
another
it
is
liberty
,
equality
,
and
a
certain
kind
of
civilization
of
a
small
corner
of
the
world
called
Europe
.
In
1789
a
ferment
arises
in
Paris
;
it
grows
,
spreads
,
and
is
expressed
by
a
movement
of
peoples
from
west
to
east
.
Several
times
it
moves
eastward
and
collides
with
a
countermovement
from
the
east
westward
.
In
1812
it
reaches
its
extreme
limit
,
Moscow
,
and
then
,
with
remarkable
symmetry
,
a
countermovement
occurs
from
east
to
west
,
attracting
to
it
,
as
the
first
movement
had
done
,
the
nations
of
middle
Europe
.
The
counter
movement
reaches
the
starting
point
of
the
first
movement
in
the
west
--
Paris
--
and
subsides
.
During
that
twenty-year
period
an
immense
number
of
fields
were
left
untilled
,
houses
were
burned
,
trade
changed
its
direction
,
millions
of
men
migrated
,
were
impoverished
,
or
were
enriched
,
and
millions
of
Christian
men
professing
the
law
of
love
of
their
fellows
slew
one
another
.
What
does
all
this
mean
?
Why
did
it
happen
?
What
made
those
people
burn
houses
and
slay
their
fellow
men
?
What
were
the
causes
of
these
events
?
What
force
made
men
act
so
?
These
are
the
instinctive
,
plain
,
and
most
legitimate
questions
humanity
asks
itself
when
it
encounters
the
monuments
and
tradition
of
that
period
.
For
a
reply
to
these
questions
the
common
sense
of
mankind
turns
to
the
science
of
history
,
whose
aim
is
to
enable
nations
and
humanity
to
know
themselves
.
If
history
had
retained
the
conception
of
the
ancients
it
would
have
said
that
God
,
to
reward
or
punish
his
people
,
gave
Napoleon
power
and
directed
his
will
to
the
fulfillment
of
the
divine
ends
,
and
that
reply
would
have
been
clear
and
complete
.
One
might
believe
or
disbelieve
in
the
divine
significance
of
Napoleon
,
but
for
anyone
believing
in
it
there
would
have
been
nothing
unintelligible
in
the
history
of
that
period
,
nor
would
there
have
been
any
contradictions
.
But
modern
history
can
not
give
that
reply
.
Science
does
not
admit
the
conception
of
the
ancients
as
to
the
direct
participation
of
the
Deity
in
human
affairs
,
and
therefore
history
ought
to
give
other
answers
.
